Dangerous Classes of New York Essays - 1074 Words

â€Å"We do the same thing as y’all. ‘Cept when we do it, it’s Oh, my God, these kids is animals! Like it’s the end of the world comin’.† --Namond, HBO’s The Wire Young black men crowd the corners of Baltimore. They are all hard talk, hard jaws, and crisp white t-shirts as big as sails—strapped. One precocious boy witnesses a shootout near a drug lord’s stash house and takes up sticks to play guns ‘n’ robbers. His trajectory is as follows: he graduates from sticks and piss-balloons, to g-packs and real guns, to taunting cops with brown bags of excrement, to housecats and lighter fluid, to bold, cold-blooded murder. In the words of social reformer Charles Loring Brace, this boy is one of the dangerous class—an undisciplined, delinquent†¦show more content†¦Yet, since its formal inception at the end of the nineteenth century, the measures for legitimate sanctions of juvenile delinquency have shifted. Where for a time sanctions delinquency relied solely upon a formal pronouncement from the juvenile court system, society has witnesses an increase in informal sanctions of delinquency which take place outs ide of the juvenile courts, as well as a dangerous rise in sanctions that result from false perceptions of juvenile delinquency. The former two [sanctions] have given rise to the well-argued Labeling Theory, which endeavors to explain criminal recidivism. The eye of the Wire passes over these shifts in delinquency sanctions but doesn’t stay long enough to inform its audience of their destructive force or of how juvenile delinquency truly functions in the American landscape. I. â€Å"†¦the class of a large city most dangerous to its property, its morals and its political life, are the ignorant, destitute, untrained, and abandoned youth: the outcast street-children grown up to be voters, to be the implements of demagogues, the feeders of the criminals, and the sources of domestic outbreaks and violations of law.† —Charles Loring Brace, The Dangerous Classes of New York Juvenile delinquency was developed alongside the invention of childhood in the mid-eighteenth century. That is not to say that there were no young people committing crimes before this time, but that before the middle of the eighteenth century,Show MoreRelatedThe Age Of Modern America1411 Words   |  6 Pagesone chapter lead to a new one: the birth of modern America., the Gilded Age. Major changes were taking place in the country, almost all being a result of the rapid industrialization that was taking place. Cities thrived with people, most seeking out work. Inventions flourished, light flooded the streets with the widespread availability of electricity and the lightbulb. Time were definitely changing, especially within the social classes of America. The changes effected the classes in many different ways:Read MoreReview Of Jacob Riis s Muckraker 870 Words   |  4 Pagesa book was written by Jacob Riis, who was a muckraking journalist. Muckraker was a journalist who pushed for r eform in publications that covered the issues of society for the middle and wealthy classes. In this book, Riis made a photographic report about the life of poor people in the tenements of New York. In the beginning, Riis described a raid which was made by policemen. The object of that raid was the stale-beer dives. He said that the squads sent to make simultaneous control on all tramp’sRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Muckraker By Jacob Riis867 Words   |  4 Pagesa book was written by Jacob Riis, who was a muckraking journalist. Muckraker was a journalist who pushed for reform in publications that covered the issues of society for the middle and wealthy classes. In this book, Riis made a photographic report about the life of poor people in the tenements of New York. In the beginning, Riis described a raid which was made by policemen. The object of that raid was the stale-beer dives. He said that the squads sent to make simultaneous control on all tramp’sRead Morefirearms1721 Words   |  7 Pagesare mostly used for protection and are polices officers main weapon. Rifles have a few different uses, there are used for hunting and a lot of recreational shooting. Some rifles are automatic (assault rifles), assault rifles are considered more dangerous and when these massacres happen they are often done with an assault rifles. There are many people in the United States that believe that a owning a gun is morally wrong and there are a lot of people that think owning a gun is morally permissibleRead MoreProposal of Marijuana Legalization Essay1528 Words   |  7 Pagesstates are making decisions independently from the federal government. â€Å"A growing share of the American public supports liberalizing marijuana laws. For years surveys by CNN and other news organizations have found that most Americans agree pot smokers should not go to jail. In polls taken this year by Zogby, CBS News, and Rasmussen Reports, at least 40 percent of respondents went further, saying marijuana should be legalized.† â€Å"[Oregon] is gathering signatures to put the Oregon Cannabis Tax Act andRead MoreDrone ´s Should Not Be Used unless They are Completed Controlled and Tested716 Words   |  3 Pagesrequirements. While many hobbyists use their drones to fly over cities or meadows with small cameras attached in order to record scenery, there are also many other uses (Senese). In the hands of the wrong person, these drones could possibly provide a new way for sinister acts, such as carrying illegal items or weapons across borders and into prisons, to take place without the pilot actually being involved in the act (Carte). Another reason why hobbyist drones need to be regulated is because of the factRead MoreEssay on Teen Pregnancy124 4 Words   |  5 Pagesand birth control are not 100% effective when it comes to avoiding pregnancy. Many of these methods have flaws which can result in becoming impregnated. Being a teenager with a child can be very hard. And in almost all cases, it is. A person has a new responsibility. A responsibility so large that other things in your life seem vaguely important in comparison. A person is responsible for a child, a human being, a life. We live in a tough world and we all have tough lives. Teenage pregnancy at timesRead MoreJournalism : An Objective And Ethical Way1218 Words   |  5 PagesJournalism is defined as the activity of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting news and information. (American Press Institute) It is the process of finding out what is going to be important to the general public and presenting that information in an unbiased and ethical way. The number of journalists in 2014 was 54, 400. Journalism could be described as the office job for people w ho don’t want to work in an office. Reporters are in constant motion and they report on a variety of topicsRead More The Importance of Going Away to College Essay1261 Words   |  6 Pagespeople and even campuses are somewhat familiar? Or should the decision be to start a completely new chapter in ones life by attending a college farther away, with totally new challenges? I believe the answer is definitely to leave town. Of course, I can only speak from own experience to date. I thoroughly enjoyed high school and had excellent teachers who prepared me for entrance into the new world of college. My family and I discussed and received information from many schools, some of whichRead MoreEssay on Pedophilia, and Sexual Offenses1606 Words   |  7 Pagesclaim that they can help children discover their sexuality. There is even a group to defend the rights of pedophiles called NAMBLA, The North American Man/Boy Love Association. NAMBLA was founded in 1978 by David Thorstad, they are headquartered in New York CIty and San Francisco. Persons convicted of the production of child pornography are given a minimum of 15 years. Section 3559 (e) states that persons convicted of a second certain sex offense will be imprisoned for life. Because the victims of

The Republican Party Essay - 2545 Words

Though the Republican Party was founded on pro-minority ideals and continued to have the support of minorities its reputation quickly began to change. Wagner (2007) states that during the early late 1800s and the early 1900s, Republican support weakened among the working class. In addition, many Americans, including a sizable number of Republicans, believed that American society had lost its moral fiber. As a result of these factors, many Republicans became affiliated with the Progressive Movement, a reform movement designed to assist the working class attain better working conditions in the form of religious fundamentalism. During the Progressive Era, the Republican Party split into two groups: those Republicans interested primarily in†¦show more content†¦Rueter (1995) provides a detailed look into the world of politics during the civil rights era. Rueter asserts that prior to the civil rights era, the Republican Party was not as effective in gaining rights for minorities compared to proposals made by the Democratic Party in the 1960s. He states that it was clear to minorities that the Democratic Party was more supportive of civil rights versus Republicans due to their lack of voting support of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Because of this, Republicans were seen as being against minorities due to their lack of cooperation with the Democratic Party to end segregation and with President Johnson to allow equal voting rights (240-1). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 barred unequal application of voter registration requirements, outlawed discrimination in public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce, encouraged the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U. S. Attorney General to file suits to force desegregation, authorized the withdrawal of federal funds from programs which practiced discrimination, and outlawed discrimination in employment in any business (Loevy 1997, 211-3). According to Klarman (2004) the civil rights movement caused southerners to cling to the Republican Party and gave the Democratic Party more momentum to further support minority interests. The Republican Partys inability to quicklyShow MoreRelatedThe Democratic Party Of The Republican Party1531 Words   |  7 Pagespolitical parties differ significantly on policies, a prospect that may work to the advantage or the disadvantage of the candidate for Democratic Party of the Republican Party. After months of the long bruising primaries, the GOP conducted its convention in Cleveland while the democratic sect held their convention in Philadelphia. The speeches delivered in the two conventions had significant policy differences which are likely to influence voting patterns in the November elections. Republican PositionsRead MoreThe Republican Party And The Democratic Party Essay1467 Words   |  6 PagesThe Republican Party has long relied on the support of older, white, conservatives. Regrettably, they are a shrinking portion of the voting population. The problem that they face is a shrinking voter base, mainly due to age. As their electorate shrinks, it is imperative for the party to appeal to the more liberal younger generations for support. The Republican Party needs to look forward to true reform. Above all, the party needs to abandon much of their social conservatism to appeal to millennialsRead MoreThe And Republican Party Establishment920 Words   |  4 PagesThe GOP and Republican Party establishment elites are no longer on the side of the true American. The true America is what our founding fathers had risked and gave up so much to establish with the Declaration of Independence and the signing of The Constitution. Unfortunately in this election cycle, the establish ment has made it very clear that they are more concerned with their political party elitist ideals than being a representative of the American voter. Each political party has a duty to itsRead MoreThe Democratic Party And The Republican Party1931 Words   |  8 PagesThe Republican Party has a total of 18 US presidents that were in office, the most of any political party to date. The Republican Party started with Abraham Lincoln and working its way down to George W Bush. The first start of the Party was in February, 1854, when antislavery Whigs met together to discuss a formation of a new political party. One such meeting on March 20th, 1854, in Wisconsin, is remembered as the Founding meeting of the Republican Party. The Civil War made the Republican Party victoriousRead MoreEssay on The Republican Party3091 Words   |  13 PagesThe Republican Party The Republican party is one of the two major POLITICAL PARTIES in the United States, the other being the DEMOCRATIC PARTY party. It is popularly known as the GOP, from its earlier nickname Grand Old Party. From the time it ran its first PRESIDENTIAL candidate, John C. Fremont, in 1856, until the inauguration of Republican George BUSH in 1989, Republican presidents occupied the WHITE HOUSE for 80 years. Traditionally, Republican strength came primarily from New EnglandRead MorePolitical Parties And The Republican Party Platform1464 Words   |  6 Pagesthat there are two main political parties—the Republicans and the Democrats. Having two main parties has its advantages and, of course, its disadvantages. For example, in By the People James E. Monroe and Rogan Kersh (301) point out having this type of system creates â€Å"predictability and stability.† However, they also declare (301) it can â€Å"lead to a gridlock.† This is not a new concept either as there has been a divide since the beginning of both parties. The two parties more often than not disagree onRead MoreThe Republican Party Or Grand Old Party937 Words   |  4 Pages The Origin, The Change, The Present The Republican party or Grand Old Party (GOP), for over 150 years, has maintained itself as a major political party within the United States of America. As a whole, the republican party follows the belief of military build up ,less taxes, and more importantly, a limited government. However, throughout recent years there has been an influx of conservative values being spread throughout the GOP. These values include harsh stances against: homosexuality, immigrationRead More democrat and republican parties Essay2690 Words   |  11 PagesDemocratic Party at its worst is better for the country than the Republican Party at its best.† This was a statement made by Lyndon B. Johnson in 1955. Lyndon B. Johnson of course was a Democrat. Is this quote true today? That is a question that can only be answered after a careful analysis of the philosophy of the Republican and Democratic leaders that help to run this nation. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;â€Å"Neither of the two major parties is made up of people who are all of one mind. Each party is aRead MoreFacts and History of the Republican Party504 Words   |  2 Pagesfor anyone (including the wealthy) and that wages should be set by the free market. Stand on Military issues: Increased spending Stand on gay marriage: Oppose (some Republicans disagree) Stand on abortion: Should not be legal; oppose Roe v. Wade (some Republicans disagree) Stand on Death penalty: A large majority of Republicans support the death penalty. Social and human ideas: Based on individual rights and justice Traditionally strong in states: Oklahoma, Kansas, Texas Symbol: Elephant Read MoreRepublican Democratic Parties Essay1073 Words   |  5 Pagespolitical parties fighting in each country in order to take control of their government. The United States of America is not an exception, as the Democratic and Republican parties compete against each other in every election in order to gain control of the US Government. These two political parties are the most popular and powerful in the US, there are very popular that other political parties have no chance on competing against these two in an election race. In order to win elections the parties need

Personal response to Emily Dickinsons poetry Essay Example For Students

Personal response to Emily Dickinsons poetry Essay The money is then stolen by Thelmas new lover JD, who in the process teaches her how to rob a convenience store, which enables them to acquire money to continue running from the patriarchal system, yet getting them in to deeper trouble, to the point in which there is no turning back. Dargis describes men as signposts along the way, yet the fact that males are seen less in the film gives them a behind the scenes controlling status, like an invisible creature who has the power to give and to take away. Carlston mentions that it seems implausible that Thelma would be so trusting of men after her near rape experience. When they arrive at the first hotel Thelma goes to the pool in a provocative bikini, while the camera adopts the male gaze of Thelma as an object (which got her into trouble in the first place). This implausibility may be directing us to the concept that although men provide the crucial turning points in the plot narrative, they dont provide all of the reasons for the changing personalities and styles of the female characters. Louise doesnt immediately throw away her makeup after the first incident of killing the rapist because she and Thelma suddenly decide they dont want to be objectified anymore for safety reasons. Its a gradual process which is brought to light in the scene in which they are driving in the night, and a series of dissolves from the face of Thelma to Louise and back again shows how similar they are now in looks. Their hair is wild, no make up or jewellery (Louise traded hers for a practical cowboy hat) and similar clothes. Carlson suggests this is part of their transition to becoming men, yet although they arent made up they dont look like men. I think the point is that they dont care what they look like any more, they arent trying to be something else, as we can see when Louise throws away her lipstick. The narrative is definitely about change, and becoming who you want, not what others want you to be. In this case it is irrelevant that the characters where forced into this lifestyle. This challenges our conception that women should be a particular stereotype, as these women act somewhat like men in certain ways and like women in others. This change is hinted at in the first shot of the desert scenery which is in black and white, then slowly merges into colour. The fact that the scenery is dull and is slowly enhanced also echoes the story of Thelma and Louise, whose lives are enriched when they try to escape from that which was keeping them subserviant. They managed to achieve some freedom, if only for a short while. Yet as much as Thelma and Louise challenge typical conventions and ideologies, the ending repeats the common view on women in movies. If a woman steps outside of her place in society, she must either repent or die. That they chose death rather than repentance shows that they had become unwilling to give in to men anymore, and I guess in their own way they won. Yet this still suggests that theres no room in society for women to be themselves as opposed to what men want them to be. The photo taken at the beginning of the trip flies away, signifying the end of the road. Bibliography Making a Good Script Great Linda Seger Film, Form and Culture Robert Kolker Thelma and Louise and the Tradition of the Male Road Movie Manohla Dargis Is This what Feminism is all About? 1 Is This What Feminism Is All about? by Margaret Carlson and Thelma and Louise and the Tradition of the Male Road Movie by Manhola Dargis.

The Views of Doctorow in Ragtime Essay Example

The Views of Doctorow in Ragtime Essay In the classic E. L. Doctorow novel, Ragtime, we see the juxtaposition of many motifs to represent Doctorows view of the early century. By combining history and fiction Doctorow allows himself to write a semi-accurate interpretation of the early 1900s while also being able to strongly express his own biases and opinions of the era. The biggest, and perhaps most important theme Doctorow applies in the novel is social tension, or the battle of the rich versus the poor. Other important themes include rebirth, racial tension, and high randomness of events. By using these themes and others, movie makers created a film, which they believe best represents Doctorows views. It is apparent that Doctorow clearly favors the poor, lower class, in their struggle for economic and social mobility against the few, rich, upper class citizens. Doctorows thoughts are best depicted through the novels characters. Tateh, Coalhouse Walker and Sarah are all characters who are portrayed as good. These characters, while representing a wide range of economic success, all symbolize socially challenged individuals. Throughout the novel, Doctorow always chooses these or similar types of characters to be the protagonists. Doctorow wants the reader to feel for Coalhouses situation. He wants the reader to hope that Willie Conklin is harmed and the Model T Ford is repaired. On the other hand, Doctorow tells a different tale for the economic elite, upper echelon of society, represented by J. P. Morgan and Henry Ford. Morgan is presented as a snobbish old man, who always gets his way, and we are supposed to feel no remorse for him when his museum is broken int! We will write a custom essay sample on The Views of Doctorow in Ragtime specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Views of Doctorow in Ragtime specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Views of Doctorow in Ragtime specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We, the readers, are inclined to agree with Doctorows opinion only because that is the way he planned it. Doctorow did not touch on any negative aspects of Coalhouse Walkers actions, such as innocent firemen that he killed, and their families, perhaps, because this might sway the readers belief as to Coalhouses innocence. The film, Ragtime, does support Doctorows social tension beliefs, however it leaves more things open for the reader to decide. For example the book gives the impression that Coalhouse is killing the racist bad firemen. The movie shows him shooting and blowing up firemen, who perhaps could be good people. The concept of rebirth is used liberally by Doctorow. Doctorow commonly has a character go through a major transmogrification, or rebirth. This rebirth ordinarily happens when moving from one social class to another. Tateh, Houdini, Coalhouse, and mothers younger brother and clearly are examples of these rebirths. When Tateh goes from being a poor street peddler to a rich movie maker, he goes through a transformation. Tateh starts dressing and acting a lot differently, perhaps also forgetting his Jewish heritage and 5000 years of oppression. Houdinis alteration is greater than Tatehs. Houdini goes from a not so well off family to a rich and famous escape artist. Through this social change, Houdini changes his Jewish name Erich Weiss to a more appropriate Christian name of Harry Houdini. As well as changing his name, Houdini also seemed to forget his background. However, later in the novel we find out that Houdini did in fact not forget his heritage. He just changed his name as a career move. Coalhouse Walkers rebirth is much more dramatic and swift than Tatehs or Houdinis. Coalhouse goes from a fine upstanding citizen to a disgruntled man, caught at the end of a racist prank, and out for revenge. At one point, He sat down with a sheet over his shoulder and permitted one of the young men to shave his head and his neat mustache. The change in him was striking, (). This symbolic and actual rebirth occurs as Coalhouse moves from being a wealthy prominent musician to a fugitive on the run. Mothers younger brother also goes through a rebirth. His rebirth involves going from a wealthy family to a fugitive gang. Because of this social change, Doctorow has mothers younger brother go through a rebirth as well. This was in the form of him putting black makeup on his face to fit in with Coalhouses black gang. All four of these examples express Doctorows opinion that in order to go through a social change, one must go through a physical rebirth of some sort. The movie does complement Doctorows view on this issue. The film portrays all four characters as going through physical transformations as well as social changes. Racial tension is certainly a major motif throughout the book. Without it, the book simply would be neither entertaining nor fulfilling. In writing Ragtime, Doctorow knew that racial tension was the most obvious theme in his book, as well as being the foundation for a major plot in the book. One does not have to dig to deeply in order to discover that Doctorow believes that there was racial tension and blatant racism in the early century. To represent this racial tension, Doctorow uses a mix of fiction and history. On the fictional side, Doctorow has Coalhouse Walker and his fiancÐ ¹ Sarah. On the historical side, Doctorow has Booker T. Washington, a famous black rights leader who believed in non-violent methods. Doctorow has Coalhouse and Sarah interact with other fictional characters, the Vice President of the United States, Willie Conklin, the other firemen, and others in order to put racial tension in place. Then Doctorow has Coalhouse have a conversation with the famous Booker T. Washington. This interaction shows the extent to which Doctorow believed in the racial tension many years ago. The book shows that Doctorow believed racial tension to be a strong driving force in the actions of the early 1900s. The film did justice to the book in that respect. The film accurately portrayed strong racial tension, as well as a beautiful dialogue between Coalhouse and Booker T. Washington. After Washington made a fabulous and convincing speech to Coalhouse, Coalhouse replied, My wife Sarah would have loved to meet you Mr. Washington. You speak like an angel. However, we are on Earth. This dialogue from the movie shows how high strung the racial tension was, because it depicts Coalhouse making a rude comment to the most prominent Civil Rights figure of his time, in order to stand up to a small racist practical done on him. E. L. Doctorow wrote Ragtime in a very interesting way, in that the fate of characters seems to be based on a high entropy, or randomness. In a usual circumstance, fate, if one believes in such a thing, follows a set up, logical, pattern of events. This, however, is not the case in this novel. Mother and Coalhouse are good examples of this high disorder and randomness. Mother was very satisfied with her marriage to father. She waited when he went on his adventures to the arctic, and she was a faithful wife. Early in the novel there is no way that anyone could have predicted that mother would leave father and marry Tateh. This new relationship was very random and created a lot of disorder. When we first meet Coalhouse Walker, he is nothing but a gentleman. In fact, he holds a stable job, has a good car, and a steady income. He also has a soon to be family and everything is going great for him. Who would have guessed that one small incident would change Coalhouse into a criminal, a murderer, and running from the law. This example perfectly illustrates the ambiance of high disorder in the book. It is clear that Doctorow beliefs the early century to be a random and crazy time. Doctorow believes that in the early 1900s anything could happen. Little on the earth was regulated and many laws were not enforced to the extent they should have been. The movie does a satisfactory job in reliving this randomness. If the movie did not do a satisfactory job, it would not even have been considered based on the book, because these random events of Mother and Coalhouse are fundamental ideas that needed to be included in the film.

How to Write the Hook of an Essay

How to Write the Hook of an Essay You can think of the first sentence of your essay as you would a fishing hook. It grabs your reader and allows you reel the person into your essay and your train of thought. The hook for your essay can be an interesting sentence that captures a persons attention, it can be thought-provoking, or even, entertaining. The hook for your essay often appears in the first sentence. The opening paragraph includes a thesis sentence. Some popular hook choices can include using an interesting quote, a little-known fact, famous last words, or a statistic. Quote Hook A quote hook is best used when you are composing an essay based on an author, story, or book. It helps establish your authority on the topic and by using someone elses quote, you can strengthen your  thesis if the quote supports it. The following is an example of a quote hook: A mans errors are his portals of discovery. In the next sentence or two, give a reason for this quote or current example. As for the last sentence (the thesis) : Students grow more confident and self-sufficient when parents allow them to make mistakes and experience failure. General statement By setting the tone in the opening sentence with a uniquely written general statement of your thesis, the beauty is that you get right to the point. Most readers appreciate that approach. For example, you can start with the following statement: Many studies show that the biological sleep pattern for teens shifts a few hours, which means teens naturally stay up later and feel alert later in the morning. The next sentence, set up the body of your essay, perhaps by introducing the concept that school days should be adjusted so that they are more in sync with the teenagers natural sleep or wake cycle. As for the last sentence (the thesis):  If every school day started at ten oclock, many students would find it easier to stay focused. Statistic By listing a proven fact or entertaining an interesting statistic that might even sound implausible to the reader, you can excite a reader to want to know more.   Like this hook: According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, teens and young adults experience the highest rates of violent crime. Your next sentence can set up the argument that its dangerous for teenagers to be on the streets at late hours. A fitting thesis statement might read: Parents are justified in implementing a strict curfew, regardless of a students academic performance. The Right Hook for Your Essay The good news about finding a hook? You can find a quote, fact, or another type of hook after you determine your thesis. You can accomplish this with a simple online search about your topic after youve developed your essay. You can nearly have the essay finished before you revisit the opening paragraph. Many writers polish up the first paragraph after the essay is completed. Outlining the Steps for Writing Your Essay Heres an example of the steps you can follow that help you outline your essay. First paragraph: Establish the thesisBody paragraphs: Supporting evidenceLast paragraph: Conclusion with a restatement of the thesisRevisit the first paragraph: Find the best hook Obviously, the first step is to determine your thesis. You need to research your topic and know what you plan to write about. Develop a starting statement. Leave this as your first paragraph for now. The next paragraphs become the supporting evidence for your thesis. This is where you include the statistics, opinions of experts, and anecdotal information. Compose a closing paragraph that is basically a reiteration of your thesis statement with new assertions or conclusive findings you find during with your research. Lastly, go back to your introductory hook paragraph. Can you use a quote, shocking fact, or paint a picture of the thesis statement using an anecdote? This is how you sink your hooks into a reader. The best part is if you are not loving what you come up with at first, then you can play around with the introduction. Find several facts or quotes that might work for you. Try out a few different starting sentences and determine which of your choices makes the most interesting beginning to your essay.

Biography of Emiliano Zapata, Mexican Revolutionary

Biography of Emiliano Zapata, Mexican Revolutionary Emiliano Zapata (August 8, 1879–April 10, 1919) was a village leader, farmer, and horseman who became an important leader in the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920). He was instrumental in bringing down the corrupt dictatorship of Porfirio Dà ­az in 1911 and joined forces with other revolutionary generals to defeat Victoriano Huerta in 1914. Zapata commanded an imposing army but rarely sallied forth, preferring to stay on his home turf of Morelos. Zapata was idealistic, and his insistence on land reform became one of the pillars of the Revolution. He was assassinated in 1919. Fast Facts: Emiliano Zapata Known For: One of the leaders of the Mexican RevolutionBorn: August 8, 1879 in Anenecuilco, MexicoParents: Gabriel Zapata, Cleofas Jertrudiz SalazarDied: April 10, 1919 in Chinameca, San Miguel MexicoEducation: Basic education from his teacher Emilio VaraSpouse: Josefa EspejoChildren: Paulina Ana Marà ­a Zapata Portillo (with his wife),Carlota Zapata Snchez, Diego Zapata Pià ±eiro, Elena Zapata Alfaro, Felipe Zapata Espejo, Gabriel Zapata Senz, Gabriel Zapata Vzquez, Guadalupe Zapata Alfaro, Josefa Zapata Espejo, Juan Zapata Alfaro, Luis Eugenio Zapata Senz, Margarita Zapata Senz, Marà ­a Luisa Zapata Zà ºÃƒ ±iga, Mateo Zapata, Nicols Zapata Alfaro, Ponciano Zapata Alfaro (all illegitimate)Notable Quote: It is better to die on your feet than to live on your knees. Early Life Before the Revolution, Zapata was a young peasant like many others in his home state of Morelos. His family was fairly well off in the sense that they had their own land and were not debt peons (slaves, essentially) on one of the large sugarcane plantations. Zapata was a dandy and a well-known horseman and bullfighter. He was elected mayor of the tiny town of Anenecuilco in 1909 and began defending his neighbors’ land from greedy landowners. When the legal system failed him, he rounded up some armed peasants and began taking the stolen land back by force. Revolution to Overthrow Porfirio Dà ­az In 1910, President Porfirio Dà ­az had his hands full with Francisco Madero, who ran against him in a national election. Dà ­az won by rigging the results, and Madero was forced into exile. From safety in the United States, Madero called for a Revolution. In the north, his call was answered by Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa, who soon put large armies into the field. In the south, Zapata saw this as an opportunity for change. He also raised an army and began fighting federal forces in southern states. When Zapata captured Cuautla in May of 1911, Dà ­az knew his time was up and he went into exile. Opposing Francisco I. Madero The alliance between Zapata and Madero did not last very long. Madero did not really believe in land reform, which was all that Zapata cared about. When Madero’s promises failed to come to fruition, Zapata took to the field against his onetime ally. In November 1911 he wrote his famous Plan of Ayala, which declared Madero a traitor, named Pascual Orozco head of the Revolution, and outlined a plan for true land reform. Zapata fought federal forces in the south and near Mexico City. Before he could overthrow Madero, General Victoriano Huerta beat him to it in February 1913, ordering Madero arrested and executed. Opposing Huerta If there was anyone that Zapata hated more than Dà ­az and Madero, it was Victoriano Huerta- the bitter, violent alcoholic who had been responsible for many atrocities in southern Mexico while trying to end the rebellion. Zapata was not alone. In the north, Pancho Villa, who had supported Madero, immediately took to the field against Huerta. He was joined by two newcomers to the Revolution, Venustiano Carranza, and Alvaro Obregà ³n, who raised large armies in Coahuila and Sonora respectively. Together they made short work of Huerta, who resigned and fled in June 1914 after repeated military losses to the â€Å"Big Four.† Zapata in the Carranza/Villa Conflict With Huerta gone, the Big Four almost immediately began fighting among themselves. Villa and Carranza, who despised one another, nearly began shooting before Huerta was even removed. Obregà ³n, who considered Villa a loose cannon, reluctantly backed Carranza, who named himself the provisional president of Mexico. Zapata didn’t like Carranza, so he sided with Villa (to an extent). He mainly stayed on the sidelines of the Villa/Carranza conflict, attacking anyone who came onto his turf in the south but rarely sallying forth. Obregà ³n defeated Villa over the course of 1915, allowing Carranza to turn his attention to Zapata. The Soldaderas Zapata’s army was unique in that he allowed women to join the ranks and serve as combatants. Although other revolutionary armies had many women followers, they generally did not fight (with some exceptions). Only in Zapata’s army were there large numbers of women combatants: some were even officers. Some modern Mexican feminists point to the historical importance of these â€Å"soldaderas† as a milestone in women’s rights. Death In early 1916, Carranza sent Pablo Gonzlez, his most ruthless general, to track down and stamp out Zapata once and for all. Gonzlez employed a no-tolerance, scorched-earth policy. He destroyed villages, executing all those he suspected of supporting Zapata. Although Zapata was able to drive the federales out for a while in 1917-1918, they returned to continue the fight. Carranza soon told Gonzlez to finish Zapata by any means necessary. On April 10, 1919, Zapata was double-crossed, ambushed, and killed by Colonel Jesà ºs Guajardo, one of Gonzlez’ officers who had pretended to want to switch sides. Legacy Zapata’s supporters were stunned by his sudden death and many refused to believe it, preferring to think he had gotten away- perhaps by sending a double in his place. Without him, however, the rebellion in the south soon fizzled. In the short run, Zapata’s death put an end to his ideas of land reform and fair treatment for Mexico’s poor farmers. In the long run, however, he has done more for his ideas in death than he did in life. Like many charismatic idealists, Zapata became a martyr after his treacherous murder. Even though Mexico still has not implemented the sort of land reform he wanted, he is remembered as a visionary who fought for his countrymen. In early 1994, a group of armed guerrillas attacked several towns in southern Mexico. The rebels call themselves the EZLN, or Ejà ©rcito Zapatista de Liberacià ³n Nacional (National Zapatist Liberation Army). They chose the name, they say, because even though the Revolution â€Å"triumphed,† Zapata’s vision had not yet come to pass. This was a major slap in the face to the ruling PRI party, which traces its roots to the Revolution and supposedly is the guardian of the Revolution’s ideals. The EZLN, after making its initial statement with weapons and violence, almost immediately switched to modern battlefields of the internet and world media. These cyber-guerrillas picked up where Zapata left off 75 years before: the Tiger of Morelos would have approved. Sources â€Å"Emiliano Zapata.†Ã‚  Biography.com, AE Networks Television, 4 Feb. 2019, McLynn, Frank. Villa and Zapata: A History of the Mexican Revolution. Basic Books, August 15, 2002. â€Å"Who Was Emiliano Zapata? Everything You Need to Know.†Ã‚  Facts, Childhood, Family Life Achievements of Revolutionary Leader.

Language and Ideology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Language and Ideology - Essay Example That is, language does not exist without ideology and ideology does not exist without language. Due to its artificiality, language and its application through narrative is vulnerable to manipulation that functions as a justification for the interests of certain power relations within society. Since both language and ideology are culturally embedded, all forms of linguistic representation must be understood as constructed and mediated. The aim of the critic becomes the deconstruction of the form and content of social expression that is constituted through the dynamic inter-relation of language and the ideas that it supports and perpetuates. To understand its relation to ideology, we must first examine how language is formulated from a material perspective. According to Ferdinand de Saussure's seminal analysis of the structure of words and their associated meanings, the former is never a transparent indicator of the latter. In his Course in General Linguistics, Saussure maintained that language should be divided into two components: "langue," referring to the entire body of a language, and "parole," referring to a specific utterance or individual act of speech within a language. The latter can only be comprehended within the larger system of the former. That is, the meaning of words or "signs" is derived from their relation to one another within a cumulative structure or system of signification.1 To illustrate this principle, Saussure drew a clearly discernable distinction between the "signifier," or word, and the "signified," or that to which the word refers or claims to represent. For example, the word "tree" is only indicative of the external, material object of a tree insofar as we believe and regard it to be. The word "tree" can just as easily be applied to other external, material objects. In this way, the formation of words and their meanings is an entirely artificial, constructed, and enclosed relation.2 Saussure's analysis of language instigated a radical rethinking of our understanding of subjectivity, culture, and power. Since the linguistic system of "signs," or "semiotics," is a product not of a natural relation between signifier and signified but of the human mind generating and organizing signs into meaning, Saussure concluded that the methodical study of languages would lead to new discoveries about human nature on both the individual and the collective level. Amongst the most influential thinkers to further this conclusion was the structural anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss. In his 1958 work, Structural Anthropology, Levi-Strauss introduced structuralism as "the systematic attempt to uncover deep universal mental structures as these manifest themselves in kinship and larger social structures, in literature, philosophy and mathematics, and in the unconscious psychological patterns that motivate human behaviour"3 This project is an extension of Saussure's proposed science of semiology. As Saussure wrote, "Linguistics is only one branch of this general science. The laws which semiology will discover will be laws applicable to linguistics, and the linguistics will thus be assigned to a clearly defined place in the field of human knowledge."4 Applying Saussure's understanding of linguistic systems to other domains of social inquiry, such as methods of economic exchange, kinship, food, and myths, Levi-Strauss viewed

ICE Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ICE Paper - Essay Example ty in Facebook continues to increase after the guarantee that Facebook is on the lookout for security lapses and always striving to enhance privacy controls. The fact that Facebook works with other security experts to ensure that its privacy controls are updated is proof that the company puts the privacy of its users in the forefront. In the article Our Commitment to the Facebook Community, Zuckerberg says, â€Å"We also work with regulators, advocates and experts to inform our privacy practices and policies† (Tow 1). Consequently, Facebook pursues new privacy monitoring standards as reviewed by the industry players. There are also agreements that Facebook participates in which create frameworks on how internet services company ought to approach security concerns in the U.S and other countries around the globe. It shows that Facebook recognizes the need to keep alert as the internet is prone to changes that may make privacy controls at one time outdated. There is a need to lia ise with other industry players and experts so as to identify the privacy loopholes and devise ways to handle them appropriate. In the end, the biggest beneficiaries are the users as their privacy concerns are taken care of. Facebook has the privacy concerns of its users every time. It conducts security and privacy access checks every day to enhance the experience of the users. Zuckerberg asserts, â€Å"We do privacy access checks literally tens of billions of times each day to ensure were enforcing that only the people you want see your content. These privacy principles are written very deeply into our code† (Tow 1). It is the concern of the user that the material he or she posts be only accessible to intended people. There emerge loopholes that hackers explore to access materials that users want to keep private. The privacy checks are meant to identify these loopholes and acts immediately to seal them. Facebook conducts the checks on a daily basis to handle any emerging problems as early as

Teacher Evaluation Essay Example for Free

Teacher Evaluation Essay Teacher evaluation is a complex process. It is a series of activities and actions that are interconnected and ultimately related to a specific purpose. Day to day, teachers deal with complex problems and from this, they should be evaluated as professionals which means that their standards should be developed by their peers and their evaluation in turn focus on the degree in which they solve professional problems. While not always true, the emphasis of these evaluations should be on their ability to teach and not them as sole individuals, while taking into consideration the involvement of the overall educational process. The general rule of thumb is that the evaluation process typically involves preparation, observation, data collecting, reporting and most importantly, follow-up. Though each of these serves a specific purpose throughout the overall evaluation process, when missing just one, an ineffective evaluation systems being to resonate. Over time, ineffective teacher evaluation systems have become more costly than effective overall strategies. In most cases, teacher evaluation programs contain inferior material because they neither improve a teacher’s instructional skill, nor do they permit the dismissal of incompetent teachers. These points bring into clear perspective the need for effective teacher evaluation policies, and the need for boards and administrators to examine these practices with a view to improve learning opportunities across different situations. Back in 2001, Patricia Hopkins became superintendent of the Five Town CSD and Maine School Administrative District #28 in Camden Rockport with one of her first tasks being to review summative evaluations of all the teachers in the two districts. What she discovered troubled her, but yet this did not surprise her at the same time. As she read through the evaluations, she found that many were full of valentines her word for vague, meaningless praise and largely deprived of constructive criticism or concrete feedback. Hopkins believed that teacher evaluation held great potential to improve instruction, so she set out to eliminate the valentines by strengthening the culture and structures supporting teacher evaluation in district schools (Kane, Taylor, Tyler, Wooten, 2010). In recent years, the spotlight on teacher evaluation has intensified. For myself, this was something of a topic that I initially gave little to no accountability towards until viewing â€Å"Waiting For Superman† this semester. With this inside look into an exhaustive review of public education with it’s methodically dissecting the system and its seemingly intractable problems, now more than ever is the overall review of teacher’s performance a must in our academic communities. With dissecting that the teacher’s effect on student learning and achievement, practitioners, policymakers, and researchers are beginning to call for boosting the judgment and quality of a teacher’s evaluation. From this, we are starting to see the track record for evaluation and how the increasing consensus that teacher evaluation could play an important part in improving teaching and learning. During the last wave of efforts to strengthen teacher evaluation back in the 1980s, most initiatives died on the spot. This time around, however, there may be cause for more optimism. Key changes in the education world may make it easier for broad-scale improvement efforts to take hold. Moreover, some schools and districts, like those Hopkins leads, have already taken steps to more tightly link teacher evaluation with instructional improvement and increased student learning, along with implementing real consequences for those who perform superbly and for other teachers who perform poorly. Time and again, analyses of summative evaluation ratings of teacher’s show that the vast majority of teachers in any school, district, or state are rated above sometimes well above average (Donaldson, 2009). Although it is possible that all teachers are above average in some schools, there is generally more variation in teacher effectiveness within schools than between them. Thus, any school low performing or high performing, wealthy suburban or under resourced urban is likely to employ more underperforming teachers than its evaluation ratings suggest (Hanushek, Kain, OBrien, Rivkin, 2005). In fact, both principals and teachers believe that teachers are less effective than ratings indicate which ultimately leads to inflated ratings of teachers and this reflects the following problems that seriously limit the extent to which evaluation could improve instruction and achievement. Poor Evaluation Instruments: Systems have tend to emphasize what can be measured, not necessarily what matters. In turn, evaluation instruments have traditionally required evaluators to look for things that they can easily be checked off (such as the neatness of bulletin boards), but that may not indicate high-quality instruction. Limited District Guidance: Districts typically give little direction regarding what evaluators should look for. Instead of providing guidelines or rubrics that detail the substance of evaluations, districts are more likely to set out time lines and explain processes (Koppich Showalter, 2008). Lack of Evaluator Time: Evaluators, usually school administrators, report having insufficient time to conduct thorough and accurate evaluations. As the reporting requirements for schools have increased, evaluator’s time has become even scarcer. Lack of Evaluator Skill: Evaluators often lack specific knowledge about the content areas in which they evaluate teachers, especially at the secondary level. Moreover, professional development for evaluators is not frequent or comprehensive. Lack of Evaluator Moral Fiber: Principals are not always held accountable for conducting rigorous evaluations. A culture of nice pervades schools, suppressing critical feedback and encouraging principals to rate all teachers above average. Absence of High-Quality Feedback for Teachers: Even though teachers express a strong desire for more concrete, detailed feedback, evaluators generally do not provide it after their observations (New Teacher Project, 2009). Few Consequences Attached to Evaluation: Because there is little variation in the teachers summative evaluation ratings, teachers who teach exceptionally well cannot be identified or rewarded. At the same time its difficult to identify, if needed, those who struggle (New Teacher Project, 2009). Despite the deep, longstanding roots of these problems, the challenges might be easier to overcome than they appear. Currently, we know more about the links between teaching and learning than at any time in the past (Donovan Pellegrino, 2003). We know, for example, that explicit instruction in the alphabetic principle is a key component of effective reading instruction (National Reading Panel, 2000; Snow, Burns, Griffin, 1998). This knowledge enables evaluators to determine whether such instruction is occurring. In addition, the teacher workforce is undergoing a massive transition as baby boomers retire and individuals in their 20’s 30’s enter teaching. There is some indication that new teachers today differ from the retiring generation (Johnson Project on the Next Generation of Teachers, 2004). Surveys suggest that they are more open to differential recognition and rewards than are their retiring counterparts. Finally, teachers unions, long perceived as a major bar rier to the improvement of teacher evaluation, have shown an increasing openness to collaborating with districts to improve the appraisal of teachers (Johnson, Donaldson, Munger, Papay, Qazilbash, 2009; Weingarten, 2010). Another sign of hope is in the districts that are already making strides and progressing towards tightening the link between teacher evaluation and improved instruction and – potentially achievement. While dissecting the above situation, along with two other districts, I was able to obtain different a better understanding on different steps taken toward mitigating some of the current problems in teacher evaluation. These approaches represent a new direction in evaluation that, if it spreads, can transform teaching and learning. In Ohio, Cincinnatis Teacher Evaluation System exerts an influence on instruction and potential stronghold on student achievement (Kane, Taylor, Tyler, Wooten, 2010). This evaluation system grew out of a 1997 collective bargaining agreement between the Cincinnati Board of Education and the Cincinnati Federation of Teachers. Through careful study and advice from experts in research and practice, they were able to develop a program for its 58 schools and approximately 2,200 teachers that provides a clear evaluation system and structure that mitigates some of the common problems with teacher evaluation. Using Charlotte Danielsons (2007) framework as a guide, Cincinnati has built its evaluation criteria on 16 standards that are prominent within four specific domains: (1) Planning and Preparing for Student Learning, (2) Creating an Environment for Student Learning, (3) Teaching for Student Learning, and (4) Professionalism. Overall, this system devotes considerable time and resources to providing professional development on these standards. From this, teachers in the district can apply for a three-year term as an evaluator or a consulting teacher. Through this process, teacher evaluators are obligated to conduct three observations, while administrators conduct one of the tenured teachers four formal observations during the comprehensive evaluation cycle, which tenured teachers undergo every five years. Two of the observations are announced, and at least two are followed by post-observation conferences with evaluators. New teachers and struggling veterans are evaluated under a different, but related system. The districts Peer Assistance and Evaluation Program assigns consulting teachers to these teachers; these consulting teachers usually also serve as evaluators for other teachers, but they evaluate new or struggling teachers more frequently. This system reduces the time problem many evaluators face by dividing evaluation responsibilities between teachers and administrators. Each full-time evaluator typically has a caseload of 18–25 teachers. With them focused on evaluating and assisting their peers, these individuals have the time to conduct high-quality evaluations and provide useful feedback to teachers. New consulting teachers and teacher evaluators receive 10–11 days of training before starting their work, where as continuing evaluators receive five days of training each summer. Before their first term, all evaluators and consulting teachers must pass an evaluator certification test that requires them to assess instruction using the systems rubrics and demonstrate their reliability as raters. Over the course of the school year, consulting teachers and evaluators receive two hours of training every other week to review evaluation standards and calibrate scoring. After three years in their role, consultin g teachers and teacher evaluators return to full-time teaching positions, which keep their knowledge of teaching and learning current. Looking at a different approach, some charter schools have also attempted to make teacher evaluation a more powerful tool for instructional improvement. One charter management organization in the northern United States, a successful network of 15 urban schools serving high percentages of low-income and minority children, has done so by deemphasizing formal summative evaluations and focusing instead on ongoing informal evaluation and feedback (Donaldson Peske, 2010). In this organization, teachers receive one-on-one and small-group coaching from administrators on a weekly or biweekly basis, as well as a midyear summative evaluation. The coaching is differentiated according to the teachers needs and aimed at developing teacher’s skills over time. For the summative appraisal, evaluators and teachers complete a same six-page appraisal form that focuses on the organizations â€Å"Aspects of Instruction†, which covers such approaches as differentiation and checking for under standing. Comments on the appraisal do not simply reflect a short period of formal observation, as those of some evaluation systems do. Instead, the document prompts both the teacher and evaluator to reflect on all the work the teacher has done so far for that academic year. Thus, evaluators may draw on all their observations of the teacher—inside or outside the classroom, brief or sustained. This includes not only classroom instruction but also non-instructional contributions to teams and committees they hold responsibility towards, along with the school as a whole. With all of this taken into accountability, teachers reported spending three to five hours preparing these documents and another 90–180 minutes debriefing with their evaluator (Donaldson Peske, 2010). With having generally more flexibility than traditional public school, the charter organization enables administrators to spend considerable time observing, evaluating, and coaching teachers by keeping the teacher to evaluator ratio quite low approximately six teachers to one administrator. The organization has also strategically aligned personnel to handle certain administrative tasks so that principals can focus on instruction. Furthermore, an operations team handles facilities management, budgeting, certification, and ordering. In turn, a dean of students manages student behavior challenges, an intervention coordinator organizes school wide data and testing, and in some cases, an executive assistant coordinates activities with teachers and students and fills in where extra help is needed. The organization lives by the principle that, as one teacher noted, Feedback is a gift. A key part of professional development focuses on training teachers and leaders to have difficult conversations, which sometimes occurs during the evaluation of debriefs. One principal explained that her school has adopted specific norms such as staying on your side of the net and not stepping over and making claims on the other person that helps to depersonalize potential disagreements. Another principal said that in the process of hiring teachers, he deliberately gives them critical feedback on their demonstration lesson to see how they handle constructive criticism (Donaldson Peske, 2010). Evaluators receive training in how to deliver feedback in such a way that their suggestions will be implemented. They learn to give concrete and specific feedback that teachers can immediately respond to. Evaluation and coaching sessions deliberately focus on one or two major issues a teacher needs to work o n and are anchored in student data, often the organizations benchmark assessments. This ultimately narrows the focus on changes that teachers need to make to be effective. Finally, the Five Town CSD and Maine School Administrative District #28, under Patricia Hopkinss guidance, have also strengthened their evaluation systems (Kane, Taylor, Tyler, Wooten, 2010). Hopkins notes, I have seen a shift. People arent just saying you’re doing great. Theyre posing questions and making recommendations to help inform teacher’s efforts to improve instruction. This shift has come about in large part as a result of the districts efforts to solve one typical problem of evaluation systems lack of evaluator will. Early on, Hopkins decided to increase evaluator’s accountability for completing high-quality assessments. First, she posted a calendar in her office showing the names and due dates of all teacher evaluations throughout the district. This calendar enabled her to keep track of and follow up with evaluators during the school year. Administrators must conduct at least two observations each year for first and second-year teachers and one every third year for teachers on a continuing contract. The evaluations themselves are based on both these observations and such factors as promptness and accuracy of reports and evidence of professional growth. With this in place, administrators in turn meet with teachers before and after the observations and evaluations to help clarify the outcomes. Second, Hopkins and the assistant superintenden t began to informally observe all first and second-year teachers in the district. This practice of providing another set of eyes helps school-based administrators to be more critical. In some cases, Hopkins said, the informal observation led to additional observations of teachers and more in-depth conversations with administrators. Lastly, Hopkins has required principals to share their draft evaluation reports with assistant principals and vice versa before the post observation conference with the teacher. This sharing has enabled administrators to clarify their expectations, maintain consistency with one another, and ensure that their commendations and recommendations for improvement are appropriate.

The Most Dangerous Game by Richard Cornell Essay -- Richard Cornell Th

â€Å"The Most Dangerous Game†, by Richard Cornell was a story which Mr.Cornell used 8 aspects of fiction to show his point of view that one who has intellect can overcome one who has intelligence or instinct. The character’s used in the story gave the author a way to make his point of view come clear to his audience. The story uses sequence of events. The plot is how the story goes about. The setting is the surroundings of the story, or where it takes place. The suspense is the temporary holding of the information to keep the reading interested, and to keep the reader guessing and wanting to know what will happen so they will continue reading your story. Foreshadowing is the readers way of telling the ‘future’, in other words the writer is giving clues out to the reader so that the reader can produce a hypothesis of what will happen, usually the reader is right, it’s like suspense, when the reader wants to find out if he is right or wrong, it keeps the reader interested. Fantasy is when the reader suspends his disbelief in the story in order to enjoy the work of fiction, in other words the reader just stops disbelieving that some of the things in the story are impossible, and cannot happen. Images are symbols used by the author to reflect the point of view. These 8 aspects of fiction were used by Richard Cornell, in the, â€Å"Most Dangerous Game†, to reveal his point of view that one who has intellect can overcome one who has intelligence or instinct. The characters in the story were Sanger Rainsford and General Zaroff. Now in the story Sanger Rainsford is the victim, and General Zaroff is the predator. Now Sanger Rainsford was a hunter, he was fearless, brave, strong, and smart. He claim’s that he is superior to the animals that he kills. But when he is being hunted himself, his point of view changes. General Zaroff is a hunter, now he hunt’s animals for sport. So he goes on a deserted island and hunts animals. A while has passed and it looks like all the animals on the island have been hunted and killed. General Zaroff then finds Sanger Rainsford washed up onto the island and he thinks, â€Å"why don’t I hunt him†, so that’s what he does. So General Zaroff becomes a people hunter, and Sanger Rainsford becomes his victim. Now the story as I have said before gave the author a way to express his moral or lesson. So he puts Sanger Rainsford on a ship, which sinks at sea... ... examples of images and all the other aspects of fiction.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, The 8 aspects of fiction used by Richard Cornell in the, â€Å"Most Dangerous Game†, was mainly to reveal his point of view that one who has intellect can overcome one who has intelligence or instinct. The characters played a part of the story, in which you can find the good guy and the bad guy. The story at the end, the hunted, Sanger Rainsford makes it out alive using his knowledge and reason. The plot used by the author makes sure the story makes sense and goes in order. The setting gives scenes very important in making the story viewable in the mind of the reader. The suspense keeps readers attracted to the story until the end. The foreshadowing is the clues given out by the author to help the reader make inferences about the story. Fantasy makes the reader suspend his/her disbelief that all the things that are happening in the story are in fact real and have actually happened. And Finally Images were given to the reader to help him/her p icture the story in their mind. So I can say that the authors hypothesis was proven, that one who has intellect could overcome one who has intelligence or instinct.

Candys dog Essay

In Section three of â€Å"Of Mice and Men† we come to a significant part of the story where Carlson shoots Candy’s dog. From previous sections in the book, Steinbeck has made it evident that Candy’s dog is important to Candy. When we are first introduced to Candy and his dog, Steinbeck repeatedly describes both characters as â€Å"old†, showing how alike both are. â€Å"Old Candy, the swamper, came in and went to his bunk, and behind him struggled his old dog. † In this sentence, the adjective used to describe both characters is â€Å"old†. This suggests the similarity between them, showing that they are both reaching nearer to the end of their life. While Slim, George, Candy and his dog are in the bunk house, Carlson comes in and talks to Slim. He then complains about the smell of the dog. â€Å"God awmighty that dog stinks. Get him outta here, Candy! † Carlson makes it clear that he doesn’t like the dog being in the bunk house as it brings a foul smell with it. But when Candy hears Carlson say this, he reaches over to pat his dog as if it is fully aware of what is being said. This action evinces that Candy is apologising to the dog on Carlson’s behalf. Candy treats his dog like a human as his dog is his only companion. However, the workers at the ranch see him only as a dog. When Carlson mentions to Candy about shooting his dog, Candy’s actions and dialogues convey how Candy feels about this idea. â€Å"Candy looked about unhappily. ‘No,’ he said softly. ‘No, I couldn’t do that. I had him too long. ’ Candy is reluctant to let Carlson shoot his dog and we know this through the use of the adverb â€Å"unhappily†. Candy words make it evident that he is not ready to lose his only company. Candy purposefully tries to delay Carlson when he says, â€Å"You ain’t got no gun. † He is hopeful that Carlson doesn’t have the necessary items to kill Candy’s dog with. When the men hear the shot that marks the death of Candy’s dog, Candy’s reaction towards the death of his dog illustrates his emotions. â€Å"For a moment he continued to stare at the ceiling. Then he rolled slowly over and faced the wall and lay silent. † This action symbolises an act of rejecting the outside world. Candy’s dog was his only way of staying happy. But now that his dog has been shot, he has nothing else in the world that is worth living for. During this conversation between Carlson and Candy, George interrupts. â€Å"George said, ‘I seen a guy in Weed that had an Airedale could herd sheep. Learned it from the other dogs. ’† George tries divert Carlson’s attention to a different topic. This indicates that George is attempting to assist Candy in saving his dog. George is being empathetic towards Candy as he might understand how Candy will feel when he loses his only companion. He is taking into account other’s feelings before his own. We see this previously in the book where George stands up for Lennie when Curley threatens him. George’s only companion is Lennie and he has travelled with Lennie in search of work for a very long time. George may be the only person who realises how difficult it will be for Candy if he found himself alone after a very long time. As Carlson continuously encourages Candy to let him shoot Candy’s dog, Carlson turns to Slim for support. He asks Slim, â€Å"I bet Slim would give you one of his pups to raise up, wouldn’t you, Slim? † From previous descriptions in the book, the audience is aware that Slim is an influential character in the novel. Steinbeck makes a direct judgement about him unlike he does with the other characters in the book. Steinbeck describes him as â€Å"Majestic† and â€Å"Prince of the ranch†. Nearing the death of Candy’s dog, Steinbeck once again shows us the importance of Slim’s character at the ranch when Carlson asks for Slim’s opinion on the matter. When Slim agrees with Carlson that Candy’s dog should be shot Candy look’s helplessly at Slim: â€Å"Candy looked helplessly at him, for Slim’s opinions were law. † Steinbeck yet again directly informs the reader that Slim’s opinions are not taken lightly but seriously by the men on the ranch. It is clear that the men on the ranch constantly have respect for Slim and they do as Slim says. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE John Steinbeck section.

Lin Zexu

The letter prepared by Lin Zexu is written in a kind, compassionate tone. The high-profile government administrator writes to the British queen in an attempt to persuade her to help the Chinese prevent opium traffic in their land. Although his pleadings were eloquent and far-reaching, he was not successful in his attempt since the British undertook no action. Although the letter never made it to the Queen, it was published in a British newspaper (Travis, Hanes, 2002, p.41). The responsibility Lin Zexu places on the British was serious in many ways. He blames upon the British their disrespectful treatment of the nation that has for centuries maintained good relations with them and enabled them to realize large profits from their trade. The official points out that this trade was so beneficial for the British that they did not hesitate to sail to China from another end of the world. He also stresses that British merchants can be both scrupulous and unscrupulous: â€Å"among the unscrupulous are those who bring opium to China to harm the Chinese; they succeed so well that this poison has spread far and wide in all the provinces† (Zexu, 1839). Lin Zexu especially stresses that the Chinese government was nothing but nice toward foreign traders. They (at least in the opinion of the official) were granted every right so that they could feel comfortable in the area. However, many of the merchants chose to act in a dishonest way, causing a situation that necessitated the writing of the letter. Lin also emphasizes the favorable treatment of people from England, noting that â€Å"the Celestial Empire, following its traditional policy of treating foreigners with kindness, has been doubly considerate towards the people from England† (Zexu, 1839).   He is quick to connect this trade with the current prosperity of the English, omitting perhaps by mistake the fact that Britain traded with a number of countries, and a broad base of partners also contributed to its current prosperity. The official also points out that the stuff brought from China was composed mainly of â€Å"useful items† whereas opium is hardly so (Zexu, 1839).   Lin describes a variety of problems that China experiences because of the opium imported on British ships. He talks about the poison that is killing people. He also talks not only about the ugly nature of the opium, but also about the inability of the government to control the country. He blames the British for disobedience of the Chinese laws, stating that they are responsible for the damage inflicted upon people who fall victim to the penalties envisaged in the local criminal law. Thus, he says, â€Å"since a Chinese could not peddle or smoke opium if foreigners had not brought it to China, it is clear that the true culprits of a Chinese`s death as a result of an opium conviction are the opium traders from foreign countries† (Zexu, 1839). This statement seems a little disputable, but it was not without reason: indeed, the nation has already set its laws, and whoever pushes a Chinese person to disregard those was clearly making a disservice to this person, putting him and his family in danger of capital punishment. The way Lin Zexu blames the British reveals a weakness in the position of the Chinese authorities. Clearly, the government was not able to control the spread of drugs through its own efforts, otherwise it would not need to do things like ask foreign governments for assistance in solving their internal problems. In the modern world, governments tend to cooperate to combat crime rings and smuggling; however, in the Victorian world, such hope was rather elusive. In addition, almost no government could dictate to another whether it needs to eliminate opium plantations or undertake any other measures for managing internal affairs. The way Lin Zexu puts it, which seems rather rude and lacking in diplomacy, is a true revelation of the extent to which China needs to get this problem solved. Talking to the British queen in his letter, he says that â€Å"it is hereby suggested that you destroy and plow under all of these opium plants and grow food crops instead, while issuing an order to punish severely anyone who dares to plant opium poppies again† (Zexu, 1839).   He ends this paragraph with the pending question â€Å"why do you not do it?† (Zexu, 1839). This once again demonstrates reliance on the British to get the problem solved. The main reason why Queen Victoria ignored the request could have something to with the internal situation in Britain. The nation lived for the most part off overseas trade and wanted to preserve its source of income. If British ships were implicated in opium trade in China, this probably did not bother the queen that much. In those times, monarchs were far less interested in preserving the good name of their countries. After all, the British Crown could be accused of taking part in the trade or sponsoring it. In this light, it made sense to sort issues out by not responding to the message. This is why Lin Zexu was not successful even though his message is quite appealing in style. Closing the discussion, it is worthwhile noting that the problems with opium trade in China closely resemble many of the issues that exist in the modern world. Many people suffer from adverse actions on the part of foreign and their own governments that either overlook or fail to suppress harmful practices such as drug trade. Actually, drug trafficking persists on even a larger scale today. To this date, many governments fail to find an adequate framework for cooperation, losing their chance to overcome the problem. As in the times of Lin Zexu and Queen Victoria, there are many hidden motives involved so that officials are often interested in preserving the business that helps them make money. Therefore, this letter can serve as a useful source to consult for those willing to learn from the past mistakes. References Hanes III, W. T. and Sanello, F. (2002). The Opium Wars. Naperville, Ill.: Sourcebooks. Zexu, L. (1839). Letter to Queen Victoria.            

The Family Breakdown essays

The Family Breakdown essays The disintegration of the family has always preceded the decline of a culture. America and American families are in trouble. In the history of our nation, there has not been a single generation raised with the societal conditions that we have. Our nation is faced with a severe problem. Our social fabric seems to be coming apart at the seams. Each day we are confronted by reports of violence, teen suicides, drug abuse, spousal abuse, and child abuse. Family life is breaking down in America. The cultural acceptance of the family breakdown is undermining the foundations of strong communities and civil society. With a clear link established between the breakdown of the family and the major problems plaguing our society, the ramifications for society with a continuing demise of the family are considerable. Common practices such as out of wedlock births, abortion, and divorce are weakening the family and therefore, the community and the nation. According to the recent study The American Family by Patrick Fagan, the out of wedlock birth rate is at a historic high. In 1997, 32 percent of all children were born out of wedlock. A total of 20 million children now live with single parents, and of these, 12 million live in the poorest families. The out of wedlock birth rate has climbed steadily since the 1950s. The rise is propelled by factors such as, a decline in the birth rate among married women. Married women want to space or limit births in hope of better lives for themselves, education and prosperity for their children, and security for their families. The average family size is currently just under 3 children. Another key factor is, the birth rate for unmarried women has increased more than six times between 1940 and 1990, from 7.1 births per 1,000 unmarried women to 43.8 births. This was due in part to a change in the overall size of the population, which swelled during the postwar baby boom, and the fact that women an d me...

Gandhis Salt March of 1930

Gandhi's Salt March of 1930 What Was Gandhis Salt March? The much-publicized, 24-day, 240-mile Salt March began on March 12, 1930, when 61-year-old Mohandas Gandhi led an ever-growing group of followers from the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad to the Arabian Sea at Dandi, India. Upon arriving at the beach in Dandi on the morning of April 6, 1930, loincloth-clad Gandhi reached down and scooped up a lump of salt and held it high. This was the beginning of a country-wide boycott of the salt tax, imposed upon the people of India by the British Empire. The Salt March, also known as the Dandi March or Salt Satyagraha, became a prime example of the power of Gadhis  satyagraha, passive resistance, which ultimately led to India’s independence 17 years later. Why a Salt March? The manufacture of salt in India was a government monopoly established in 1882. Though salt could be obtained from the sea, it was a crime for any Indian to possess salt without having purchased it from the government. This ensured that the government could collect a salt tax. Gandhi proposed that every Indian refuse to pay the tax by making or purchasing illicit salt. Not paying the salt tax would be a form of passive resistance without increasing hardship for the people. Salt, sodium chloride (NaCl), was an important staple in India. Vegetarians, as many Hindus were, needed to add salt to food for their health since they did not get much salt naturally from their food. Salt was often needed for religious ceremonies. Salt also was used for its power to heal, preserve food, disinfect, and embalm. All of this made salt a powerful emblem of resistance. Since everyone needed salt, this would be a cause that Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians could all jointly participate in. Landless peasants as well as merchants and landowners would benefit if the tax were lifted.   The salt tax was something that every Indian could oppose. British Rule For 250 years, the British had dominated the Indian sub-continent. At first it was the British East India Company that forced its will on the native population, but in 1858, the Company turned over its role to the British Crown. Until independence was granted to India in 1947, Great Britain exploited India’s resources and imposed an often brutal rule. The British Raj (rule) improved infrastructure to the land, including the introduction of railroads, roads, canals, and bridges, but these were to aid in the export of Indias raw materials, carrying India’s wealth to the mother country. The influx of British goods into India prevented the establishment of small industries within India. In addition, the British levied heavy taxes on various goods. Overall, England imposed a brutal rule in order to protect its own trade interests. Mohandas Gandhi and the INC wanted to end British rule and bring about India’s independence. Indian National Congress (INC) The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, was a body made up of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Parsi, and other minorities. As the largest and most prominent Indian public organization, it was central to the movement for independence. Gandhi served as president in the early 1920s. Under his leadership, the organization expanded, becoming more democratic and eliminating distinctions based on caste, ethnicity, religion, or sex. In December of 1928, the Indian National Congress passed a resolution asking for self-rule within the year. Otherwise, they would demand complete independence and would fight for it with satyagraha, non-violent non-cooperation.   By December 31, 1929, the British government had not responded, so action was needed. Gandhi proposed opposing the salt tax. In a Salt March, he and his followers would walk to the sea and make some illegal salt for themselves. This would begin a country-wide boycott, with hundreds of thousands breaking the salt laws by making, gathering, selling, or buying salt without British permission. The key to the struggle was non-violence. Gandhi declared that his followers must not be violent or he would halt the march. A Warning Letter to the Viceroy On March 2, 1930, Gandhi wrote a letter to Viceroy Lord Irwin. Beginning with â€Å"Dear Friend,† Gandhi went on to explain why he viewed British rule as a â€Å"curse† and outlined some of the more flagrant abuses of the administration. These included obscenely high salaries for British officials, taxes on alcohol and salt, the outlandish land revenue system, and the importation of foreign cloth. Gandhi warned that unless the viceroy was willing to make changes, he was going to begin a massive program of civil disobedience. He added that he wished to convert the British people to nonviolence and thus make them see the wrong they have done to India. The viceroy responded to Gandhi’s letter, but offered no concessions. It was time to prepare for the Salt March. Preparing for the Salt March The first thing needed for the Salt March was a route, so several of Gandhi’s trusted followers planned both their path and their destination. They wanted the Salt March to go through villages where Gandhi could promote sanitation, personal hygiene, abstention from alcohol, as well as the end of child marriages and untouchability. Since hundreds of followers would be marching with Gandhi, he sent an advance team of satyagrahis (followers of satyagraha) to help the villages along the path prepare, making sure that food, sleeping space, and latrines were ready. Reporters from around the world were keeping tabs on the preparations and the walk. When Lord Irwin and his British advisers learned the specifics of the plan, they found the idea ridiculous. They hoped that the movement would die out if it was ignored. They began arresting Gandhis lieutenants, but not Gandhi himself. On the Salt March At 6:30 a.m. on March 12, 1930, Mohandas Gandhi, 61 years old, and 78 dedicated followers began their trek from the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad. They resolved not to return until India was free of the oppression the British Empire imposed on the people. They wore sandals and clothes made of khadi, cloth woven in India. Each carried a woven bag containing a bedroll, a change of clothes, a journal, a takli for spinning, and a drinking mug. Gandhi had a bamboo staff. Progressing between 10 to 15 miles a day, they walked along dusty roads, through fields and villages, where they were greeted with flowers and cheers. Throngs joined the march until thousands were with him when he reached the Arabian Sea at Dandi. Although Gandhi had prepared for subordinates to continue if he were arrested, his arrest never came.   International press was reporting the progress, and had Gandhi been arrested along the way it would have increased the outcry against the Raj. When Gandhi feared the inaction of the government might dim the impact of the Salt March, he urged students to suspend their study and join him. He urged village headsmen and local officials to resign their posts. Some marchers broke down from fatigue, but, despite his age, Mahatma Gandhi stayed strong. Daily on the trek, Gandhi required each marcher to pray, spin, and keep a diary. He continued to write letters and news articles for his papers. At each village, Gandhi collected information about the population, educational opportunities, and land revenue. This gave him facts to report to his readers and to the British about the conditions he witnessed. Gandhi was determined to include untouchables, even washing and eating in their quarters rather than in the places where the high-caste reception committee expected him to stay. In a few villages this caused upset, but in others it was accepted, if somewhat reluctantly. On April 5, Gandhi reached Dandi. Early the following morning Gandhi marched to the sea in the presence of thousands of admirers. He walked down the beach and picked up a lump of natural salt from the mud. The people cheered and shouted Victory! Gandhi called on his companions to start collecting and making salt in an act of civil disobedience. The boycott of the salt tax had begun. The Boycott The boycott of the salt tax swept across the country. Salt was soon made, bought, and sold in hundreds of places across India. People along the coast gathered salt or evaporated sea water to obtain it. People away from the coast bought salt from illegal vendors. The boycott expanded when women, with Gandhis blessing, began picketing foreign cloth distributors and liquor shops. Violence broke out in a number of places, including Calcutta and Karachi, when police tried to stop the lawbreakers. Thousands of arrests were made but, surprisingly, Gandhi remained free. On May 4, 1930, Gandhi wrote another letter to Viceroy Irwin describing his plan for followers to seize the salt at the Salt Works in Dharasana.   However, before the letter could be posted, Gandhi was arrested early the next morning. Despite Gandhi’s arrest, the action was to continue with an alternate leader. At Dharasana on May 21, 1930, approximately 2,500 satyagrahis peacefully approached the Salt Works, but were brutally attacked by the British. Without even raising a hand in their defense, wave after wave of protesters were clubbed over the head, kicked in the groin, and beaten. Headlines around the world reported the bloodbath. An even larger mass action took place near Bombay on June 1, 1930, at the salt pans in Wadala. An estimated 15,000 people, including women and children, raided the salt pans, collecting handfuls and sackfuls of salt, only to be beaten and arrested.   Ã‚   In all, about 90,000 Indians were arrested between April and December 1930. Thousands more were beaten and killed. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact Gandhi remained in jail until January 26, 1931. Viceroy Irwin wanted to end the salt-tax boycott and thus began talks with Gandhi. Ultimately, the two men agreed to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. In exchange for an end to the boycott, Viceroy Irwin agreed that the Raj would release all the prisoners taken during the salt upheaval, allow residents of coastal areas to make their own salt, and allow non-aggressive picketing of shops selling liquor or foreign cloth. Since the Gandhi-Irwin Pact did not actually end the salt tax, many have questioned the efficacy of the Salt March. Others realize that the Salt March galvanized all Indians into wanting and working for independence and brought worldwide attention to their cause.

Taxation Law According to ITAA 1997 and ITAA 1936 CGT Speech or Presentation

Taxation Law According to ITAA 1997 and ITAA 1936 CGT - Speech or Presentation Example Hence these shares would be treated as if acquired by Les for $ 20,000, their market value on 1.4.2004, the date of his father’s death and not the $ 15,000 originally paid by his father on 10 August 2001. 7. Block of land: The block of land was purchased on 1 March 2000 for $ 130,000 and sold on 20 June 2010 for 150,000 resulting in a net CGT of 20,000 (H). Although the settlement proceeds were received on 10 August 2010 in the next financial year they would be taxable as on 30 June 2010 as the asset is considered sold or disposed off in the year the taxpayer loses its ownership. 8. Dividend income from certain shares was $ 5,200 with the imputation credits being $ 2,229. Here the taxpayer is eligible as a small shareholder as his imputation or franking credits are less than $ 5,000. Hence, net taxable income is $ 5,200 - $ 2,229 = $ 2971 (I) Under the dividend reinvestment the shareholder can choose to receive newly issued shares instead of divident. Such a plan is treated as if the shareholder received the actual dividend and then used the money to buy shares. The dividend is taxed like any other dividend (including with any  dividend imputation), and the shares are taken to be acquired for the cash one didnt receive. Dividend imputation is a corporate tax under which some or all of the share paid by the corporate may be attributed or ‘imputed’ to the shareholder by giving him tax credits so as to reduce the tax burden and avoid ‘double taxation’. These credits are called franking credits which the company gives to the shareholder at the time of paying dividend. Under dividend imputation small shareholders are exempt upto $ 5000 and franking credits are fully refundable. An eligible shareholder receiving a franked dividend declares the cash amount plus the franking credit as income, and is credited with the franking credit against their

Contemporary Social Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Contemporary Social Theory - Essay Example It is not possible to discard the classical theories because modern theories have to branch out of them and as the society is a continuous story, classical theories remain forever relevant. Also we require social theories that could combine and understand many cultures and regional specialities. To understand the demography, social class structure, population, law and justice matters, sociological network and sociological geography it is necessary to have easily applicable social theories. It enables culture mapping, research, social justice and the requirements of a social welfare state. It is necessary to analyse the complexities of contemporary societies, and to understand the present social world. It is necessary to theorise communication between social systems, social interaction, and hierarchies. It is also significant to understand the configuration of power points like global trends, media and shifting political issues. Mills argues that social theory has to be combined with social imagination that shows how the personal issues could affect the large scale social structures: â€Å"Issues have to do with matters that transcend these local environments of the individual and the range of his inner life. They have to do with the organisation of many such milieux into the institution of a historical society as a whole, with the ways in which various milieux overlap and interpenetrate to form the larger structure of social and historical life,† Mills (1959, p.15). Interpreting September 11th in terms of social theory is not easy. Calhoun et al (2002, P.24) argue: â€Å"The terrorist attacks have stimulated public soul-searching. Both attacks and responses to them have raised a host of questions about social organisations, basic social institutions, and how people mobilize amid crises.† Harrington covers both classical and contemporary social theories in his book Modern Social Theory. Harrington

Analysis NASA Challenger Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Analysis NASA Challenger Case - Essay Example Administrators owe their loyalty to the employees, students, school districts and the parents. Employees rely on the information given to them by the administrators. In addition, parents have trusted the administrators to protect their children. Moreover, school districts have mandated the administrators to achieve laid down goals and objectives. Finally, students expect administrators to ensure their safety and quality service delivery to them. In order for the administration to protect their relationship with employees, they give this type of recommendation when getting rid of their employees. They give an employee a chance of another employment by another institution. In most cases friendship tend to have outdo honesty. Administrators tend to offer half-truths about their employees due to friendship. However, that not ought to be the case. Honesty in the workplace is fundamental, since it ensures that there is trust among the administrators. In addition, honest information makes one to make right decisions. In the Gadam’s case, the administrators said nothing about Gadam’s behavior. This may have been due to the friendship that existed between the administrators and Gadam. Moreover, due to the fear of tarnishing the reputation of the institutions by a negative recommendation letter about one of their employee. In the NASA case, the managers are fully responsible for the explosion. Despite their knowledge in engineering and the reasons the engineers gave against the launch, they adamantly gave an okay for the launch of the rocket. In addition, they decided to throw their engineering knowledge to the wind and embrace the management skills. I would have tried to persuade the managers not to launch the rocket, if I was in the position of McDonald or Boisjoly. Moreover, I could have warned the six astronauts and Christa McAuliffe about the danger they were about to get

Law Heritage of International Law

Law Heritage of International Law International law theorists are largely in agreement when discussing the natural law heritage of International Law. The two were virtually synonymous until the nineteenth century.[1] The conception of International Law as a branch of law is often associated with Hugo Grotius, the celebrated natural law theorist, which is a testament to the undeniable link. This was also due in part to the underdevelopment of international positive law, the relative absence of recognised customary international law and treaties, such as we enjoy today. This void was instead filled by natural law, which had matured over some two millennia. Natural law has often been referred to as philisophia perennis by some scholars.[2] Therefore, the common ground that legal systems share has been cultivated under natural law, and similarly, the common ground for the genesis of an international legal system had also been natural law. By the thirteenth century natural law had reached its zenith with the works of Thomas Aquinas. However, it was not until much later, the middle of the twentieth century to be more precise, until legal positivism became hegemonic. This was a result of post-enlightenment European thought and the rise of thinkers such as Hobbes and Locke who provided fresh insights into philosophy as well as governance. Fresh thought brought with it fresh reaction for and against the work of the naturalistic school of jurisprudence. The criticisms came from within the naturalist tradition due to a divergence from the original lex naturalis, as well as out with from the positivists.[3] At the beginning of the nineteenth century, attempts to successfully establish international law within the positivist framework proved futile. At first it was decisively excluded from the realm of positivist jurisprudence, following which it sought to reclaim it on its own terms. Lon Fuller has appropriately described thi s approach as one of icy rejection and [then] an acceptance in a bone-crushing embrace.[4] The unacceptance of international law by the legal positivists, at least initially, was due to the latters unwavering loyalty to legal positivisms core tenets. Despite numerous attempts by positivists, they were simply dumbfounded at the possibility of an object with so-called juridical character which did not stem from the will of a sovereign. By the start of the twentieth century the tide had well and truly turned in favour of legal positivism. This ushered in a new era on the jurisprudence of international law, which was rather glibly summed up in a 1926 opinion of the Mexico-United States General Claims Commission: The law of nature may have been helpful, some three centuries ago, to build up a new law of nations, and the conception of inalienable rights of men and nations may have exercised a salutary influence, some one hundred and fifty years ago, on the development of modern democracy on both sides of the ocean; but they have failed as durable foundation of either municipal or international law and can not be used in the present day as substitutes for positive municipal law, on the one hand, and for positive international law, as recognised by nations and government through their acts and statements, on the other hand.[5] As the eighteenth century drew to a close, so did the window to what was now a dated philosophy in the field of jurisprudence natural law. This was largely down to a continental shift toward proper science. This new dawn in European civilisation left little room for conjecture and ideas of a capricious nature. In other words, scholarly credibility lay in forming ideas based on a methodology akin to that of the natural sciences. Over a relatively short space of time international law theorists tipped their proverbial hats to natural law for its immense contribution to the field of international law and gave up conjecture for observation, and analysis in place of evaluation. Two of the most important figures in the history of legal positivism were Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and, his compatriot John Austin (1790-1859). Austin is a distinguished and celebrated figure in the positivist tradition because of his innovations in English legal thought. His works have been praised far and wide, and perhaps by none more so than the Cambridge jurist T.A Walker (1862-1935) who pronounced Austins work as the starting point of all English dissertations on legal science.[6] In the hope of extending jurisprudence the same status as that of the natural sciences, Austin was resolute in his stance on the distinction between law and ethics. With said task in mind, Austin provides a succinct account of what defines positive law: The essential difference of a positive law (or the difference that severs it from a law which is not a positive law) may be stated thus. Every positive law, or every law simply and strictly so called, is set by a sovereign person, or a sovereign body of persons, to a member or members of the independent political society wherein that person or body is sovereign or supreme.[7] However, regarding international law, Austin adopts a different tact. In an attempt to offer an explanation to the enigma that is international law, Austin decides to head it under the science of positive morality as opposed to law properly so called. His reasoning stems from international laws apparent unfulfillment of the criteria put forth by legal positivism. Austin believes international law to be materially lacking in the sense that no laws strictly so called emanate from a sovereign to members of an independent political society. Therefore, since there is no sovereign and independent political community which is in turn subject to said sovereign, then international law is not law so properly called.[8] The need for a sovereign in Austins view is largely due to the power it affords the law. He believes the obligatory status conferred upon the law is a result of the possible punishment, by the sovereign, that may befall a wrongdoer in case of disobedience: the prior of which is not bound by any law and is the source of all law properly so called. The notion of all law being dependent on the will of a sovereign state is one that is entirely mismatched to the characterisation of international as a proper legal system. This concept seeks to preclude the very possibility of any form of real governance of international relations amongst sovereign nations. This rather seems a case of square pegs and round holes. It is perhaps the narrow mindedness of attempting to fit international law in an entirely uncompromising mould. This approach fails to connect with the reality of international life. Which is evident in the fact that states continue to respect international law as law; through their acceptance of the rulings in the vast majority of cases, through upholding diplomacy, exercising legal rights and accepting others legal rights as well as signing treaties and regarding themselves and others as being bound by those treaties. An alternative perspective to the absolute expulsion of international law from the positivist arena, is one posited by H.L.A Hart. In his view the rules of international law need only be accepted as standards of conduct and supported with appropriate forms of social pressure to be regarded as obligatory, binding, legal rules.[9] However, since there is no secondary rule which stipulates the criteria of legal validity of rules, their existence depends on whether they are accepted as a rule or not.[10] International law therefore consists of rules which constitute not a system but a set of rules.[11] Albeit this line of reasoning is more accepting of international law as a binding, obligatory force, it does contain a major caveat. Whilst conceding international does indeed exist as law, Hart does not afford it the same status as that of a municipal legal system, which he considers to be more advanced and acceptable to the standards of positivist thought. This presents a dilemma for int ernational lawyers: to accept Harts reductionist methodology or is international law deserving of a more comprehensive designation in the jurisprudential sphere. As discussed previously, international law owes a great deal to natural law for laying the foundation for a system that is now known as international law. However, due to its metaphysical nature it was unable to ground itself as a science properly so called. In the post-enlightenment era, the baton of jurisprudence was passed over to the now favoured legal positivism. This is where we initiate proceedings into the correct classification of international law. Chapter 2: International Law as Law: An Academic Glass Bead Game? The classification of law is a concern of the utmost gravity for the international lawyer, as this has the ability to influence perceptions about the field, which is a hugely significant factor in the reaction it invokes when infringed. Perhaps the most imperative question on the minds of those who doubt international system as a legal system is the quality of it.[12] Too often it is the case that international lawyers adopt an argumentative tact which ultimately proves to be a futile endeavour, because the question remains unanswered.[13] With the introduction of his celebrated work, The Province of Jurisprudence Determined,[14]John Austin has yielded great influence over the jurisprudence of international law: most notably because of the command theory. Austin proposed theory was as follows: law consists of rules which are issued by a sovereign; are defined as commands, coercive orders, or wishes; backed by the threat of imposing an evil in the form of a sanction in case of non-compliance with said command, coercive order, or wish.[15] In Austins view a material condition for a rule to elevate to a law is that it must be issued by a sovereign who is habitually obeyed by the majority of a society and who himselfÂÂ   does not habitually obey another human superior.[16] As is evident, the command theory precludes international law from the ambit of law. According to Austin international law is not sourced from the command of a sovereign but rather it is set by general opinion and enforced by sanctions that equate t o a mere moral duty.[17] Therefore, international law is outside the legal positivist tradition and is reduced to a form of international morality by Austin.[18] As a result of Harts effective repudiation of Austins command theory,[19] which had proven to be a formidable hindrance in recognising international law as law has been largely abandoned. Austin can be considered as the last significant denier of the legal quality of international law and the refutation of one of his most notable theories has provided some much-needed respite to the international law is law camp. However, the debate is still very much alive and kicking as there have always been and still are approaches which neither fully discount international law nor accept it as the finished article for the purposes of international politics. The legal realists such as Georg Schwarzenberger and Hans Joachim Morgenthau, illustrate this well by decreeing it as a reality of the international system but vehemently questioning its ability to kerb power exercised by states.[20] To the same effect, Kenneth Waltzs neo-realist account of international relations entirely omits any part play ed by international law.[21] More recently a fresh challenge has been posed by Jack Goldsmith and Eric Posner in their work The Limits of International Law, who argue that a states interests, above all else, is the determinative factor regarding its compliance with international obligations.[22]ÂÂ   Thereby claiming that international law in all its might has little to do with state conduct in the international arena. It can be said that the various ways in which the legal quality of international law is brought into question is not ultimately decided upon the basis of the jurisprudential question of whether international law really is law properly so called. However, such questions do fuel the fire of doubt which lends itself it to strengthening the position of commentators who seek to endorse a more restrictive approach to the international legal order. The benefit of clarifying international laws position through an analytical framework is two-fold: it can help explain the system better, and perhaps rather more importantly, it can aid the international lawyer in correctly identifying and interpreting the law.[23] Thus permitting a seemingly theoretical endeavour to yield practical results. The Significance of Hart in Particular The mere fact that analytical jurisprudence is of great importance in fashioning a well-reasoned answer to our proposed question does not alone merit an exhaustive engagement with Harts concept of international law. However, for a multitude of additional reasons it seems a conducive exercise, not least of all from the perspective of international law, to analyse Harts theory. As previously stated, Hart carried out the repudiation of Austins attempt to diminish international law to mere international morality. Further to this, positivism is considered by commentators on the subject of international law to be one of the most influential theoretical approaches.[24] In the same vein, it seems only natural to examine the works of one who is not only one of the most influential contemporary legal positivists, but also one of the very few legal theorists who was concerned with approaching international law from the perspective of analytical jurisprudence. There is a prevalent belief that the study of positivism within international law has now reached the stage of flogging a dead horse. This notion is somewhat misconceived when Hart is the theorist in question. Whose concept of positivism saw fit to move away from the consideration that one could gauge the validity of a legal system with the will of sovereign states. The late 19th century and early 20th century positivist accounts of international law were essentially voluntarist theories of international law. This is evident in the works of classical positivist such as Georg Jellinek, who viewed the basis for obligations under international law as an act of auto-limitation by states,[25] and Heinrich Triepel, who further developed this voluntarist theory replacing the will of the individual states with the common will of states.[26] This voluntarist approach found its basis on the landmark Lotus decision of the Permanent Court of Justice in which the court held that [i]nternational l aw governs relations between independent States. The rules of law binding upon States therefore emanate from their own free will as expressed in conventions or by usages generally accepted as expressing principles of law.[27] Therefore, positivism not only gives a firm nod of approval toward state sovereignty but also displays a belief in the consensual character of international law: no state can be bound by a rule of international law unless it has explicitly or tacitly consented to it. The historically strong affiliation between legal positivism and voluntarist conceptions of international law has led many scholars to believe that positivism is essentially a voluntarist approach to international law.[28] However this signals a tunnel vision to legal positivism, which in the international law arena does not have to be equated with voluntarism.[29] At the crux of legal positivism, there is an assertion that all legal facts are determined by social facts alone.[30] However, a point of disagreement arises when the question of what those social facts are is posed. For Jellinek and Triepel it was the will of states, for Kelsen it was the Grundnorm,[31] for Hart the rule of recognition. Positivism can be considered a malleable concept of law, as it has the ability to encompass an approach to international law which overcomes the constrictive nuances of voluntarism. Learning from Austins Mistakes: A Critique of the Command Theory Hart believed that the major defect with Austins theory lay in its promulgation of understanding law as a set of rules which had been issued by a sovereign. Based on this contention Hart began his work, by refuting both Austins theory on rules and his proposed theory on sovereignty. Respectively, Hart was unsatisfied with the explanation of labelling all legal rules as coercive orders. Whilst the fact was true that such a theory could provide the basis for understanding certain branches of the law, namely criminal law and delict/tort, it fails to take into consideration power-conferring rules. The latter of which do not encumber individuals, but rather they are utilised in finding and altering legal relations or granting powers to public officials.[32] Hart believes that homogenising power-conferring rules with orders backed by threats has given rise to a misnomer commands which has distorted the difference.[33] An additional concern with this characterisation is that it provides n o explanation for a scenario in which the sovereign can issue law which binds himself.[34] Lastly, Hart states that it would be baseless to suppose that all legal rules can source their origin to a wilful act of a legislator, especially with regards to customary law.[35] The role accorded to a sovereign in Austins theory is highly disputed by Hart. Who finds the concept to be overreaching in the sense that the sovereign issues orders, which are habitually obeyed, and who himself obeys no one else. The issue, as Hart states, arises with respect to the continuity of law. This common ideal cannot be upheld under habitual obedience.[36] That is to say, Austins theory fails to explain the effect of a new lawmakers particular powers because the basis of his theory rests on the normative supposition of habitual obedience, which it is not.ÂÂ   This in turn cannot lend itself to a successful transfer of law making powers to the new legislator. Therefore, Hart posits that past habitual obedience is no guarantee of future habitual obedience to a new sovereign.[37]Further to this, the command theory also neglects to clarify the persistence of law.[38] Which begs the question: if a command by a person who was habitually obeyed is no longer in power, what leg al value does the command retain, if any at all. Hitherto, it is one of the defining features of a legal system that laws passed by a legislator retain their power long after the legislator waives his position. Lastly, the influence granted by Austins theory to the sovereign disregards legal limitations faced by a legislature.[39] Austin suggests that the legislator may only face legal limitations if said legislator is under obligation to another legislator. This has the undesired effect of not only undermining the sovereignty of a legislator but rather removing it altogether due to his subjection to another sovereign.[40] Therefore, removing the possibility of law being understood as the will of a sovereign.[41] Chapter 3: Harts Fresh Start: Law as the Union of Primary and Secondary Rules From the criticism of Austin, Hart forges a fresh approach in the form of primary and secondary rules. The lack of explanation offered by Austin on the subject of power-conferring rules acts as a catalyst for Hart to introduce and explain the difference between primary and secondary rules.[42] At the crux of it, primary rules impose duties on individuals. Whereas secondary rules provide the basis for creating, altering and defining the ambit of primary rules and are more commonly known as power-conferring rules. In his endeavour to demonstrate the requirement of secondary rules, Hart puts forth the example of a primitive society, which although follows certain customary rules, it does not fulfil the requisites for a legal system.[43] The system in such a society will no doubt have rudimentary regulations that facilitate its governance, but it will ultimately lack the power or means to authoritatively alter rules and resolve disputes arising from said rules. In Harts view, such a system would only be able to satisfy a relatively cognate society, and would not be agreeable if replicated on a larger scale.[44] The system of rules would suffer from rigidity in the face of social change as there would be no identifiable way to authoritatively alter them; uncertainty would arise surrounding the effectiveness of rules as there would be no means to monitor their efficiency. To address the issues facing primary rules, Hart proposes a system in which they are accompanied by secondary rules.[45] Harts rule of recognition would mitigate uncertainty and problems in authoritatively identifying primary rules. Further to this, rules of change would make the system more adept by vesting power in an individual or a group of individuals to readily create new primary rules when necessary. Lastly, the rules of adjudication would grant the representative powers to adjudicate authoritatively on possible violations of primary rules, thereby overcoming the inefficiency of a primitive system. The rule of recognition can be described as the defining characteristic of Harts concept of law. He believed it to be at the core of a legal system, as it lends authority to primary rules.[46] In contemporary legal systems, the rule of recognition dictates the precedence afforded to varying criterion.[47] The supreme criterion amongst them, must be one that overarches all other sources of law. Therefore, the rule of recognition, is the ultimate decider in a legal system.[48] Thereby granting it the unique position of not having to source its origins back to any other rule in a legal system, unlike every other criterion which is subject to the rule of recognition. In short, it serves as the standard bearer for every other rule and is perpetual in its existence. In order to establish a workable template for a legal system that amalgamates primary and secondary rules, Hart lays out the foundational aspects for such a system.[49] An elemental criteria according to Hart, is one of general obedience to the primary rules by the citizens. On the other hand, Hart rejects the assumption of secondary rules being obeyed by public officials, to whom they are addressed. This seems an amicable stance, as it would be unintelligible to class their conformity to the rules which confer law making powers on them as obedience or when they fail to conform, as disobedience. Let us consider the example of a judge, who in his duty of identifying and applying a statue, obeys the rule of recognition. It hardly seems an appropriate description of his task. Consequently, the rule of recognition requires unanimous acceptance by public officials according to Hart.[50] Whereas primary rules need only be accepted by the citizens to be considered legally valid, the rule of recognition is reliant on the fact that public officials believe it to be the general standard of legal validity and enact it to that degree.[51] Basic Elements of Harts Concept of International Law On the basis of his general theory Hart develops his concept of international law in Chapter X of The Concept of Law. In this chapter Hart approaches the question whether international law constitutes law or international morality. Only in the last section of Chapter X does Hart ask whether international law is sufficiently analogous to the municipal legal order to be qualified as a legal system. International Law as Law? According to Hart, international law lacks certain features which place it outside the fold of a developed legal system. He believes this ascription to be merited on the basis of; lack of an international legislature, absence of courts with sufficient authority, and the inadequacy of centrally organised sanctions.[52] In his estimation, such shortcomings ultimately consign international law to the position of a simple form of social structure, found in primitive societies.ÂÂ   Thereby giving rise to Harts claim that international law is largely made up of primary rules with little in the way of secondary rules. Hart goes on to examine the consequence of a lack of centralized sanctions, more notably, the effect this has on the classification of international law as law. In his view, not only are there no such sanctions under international law, United Nations Security Council attempts to establish them under Chapter VII of the UN Charter would be an exercise in futility as the veto would prove to be an unsurmountable challenge.[53]On the other hand, Hart does not believe sanctions are the elemental factor in states satisfying their obligations under international law. Such a belief would stem from the command theory obligations being backed by the threat of sanctions in case of disobedience which Hart had already refuted. Similarly, Hart argues that in establishing primary rules which prohibit the free use of force and providing rules for the use of force on official grounds as a sanction, are essential traits for all municipal legal systems. Such a system derives logic from the fact that human beings are based in communities, are of roughly equal strength, and have innumerable opportunities to harm their counterparts, all of which requires an approach that goes beyond relying on mere natural deterrents.[54] On the other hand, the international stage presents a different situation altogether. International acts of aggression are very well documented compared with those that occur on a domestic level between individuals. The possibility of third parties getting involved and the unpredictable nature of war, more often than not, acts as reason enough for states to avoid violence. Moreover, all states are not equal with regards to power and strength.[55] That is to say, sanctions would offer little in the way of acting as a deterrent for powerful states or forcing such states to obey the rules.[56] The absence of sanctions from the international level is of little concern to the legal quality of international law. [1] Sir Fredrick Pollock, Essays in the Law (1922) 63. [2] Philosophia perenis: This term has been used to denote the collective works of, most notably: Aristotle, the stoics, Augustine, the scholastics, and more latterly the neo-scholastics and the neo-thomists, referring to the body of philosophical truths common across ages and civilisations. See Heinrich A. Rommen, The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social History and Philosophy (1946: 1998 edition translated by Thomas R. Hanley) 27-2, note 21. [3] Sir Fredrick Pollock remarking on the damage done by some scholars in the Enlightenment period post-Rousseau to natural law: Modern aberrations have led to a widespread belief that the Law of Nature is only a cloak for arbitrary dogmas or fancies. Essays in the Law (1922) 32. [4] Lon L. Fuller, The Morality of Law (1969 revised edition) 232. [5] North American Dredging Company of Texas (USA) v. Mexico, 4 RIAA 26, at 29-30 (1926). [6] T.A Walker, The Science of International Law *1893) 4.